This is lesson 3 of the series on “An Introduction to Theological Issues of Governance in Iran”, by the renowned theologian, Shaykh Muhammad Taqi Subhani. This lesson was given on May 3rd, 2023.

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The discussion we have been having is that Islamic political literature, especially within Shi’ism, has undergone a semantic transformation and conceptual change to the extent that when discussing contemporary political discourse, the meanings are not always clear. Additionally, due to this paradigm shift, we sometimes encounter a series of fallacies and heedlessness concerning the essence of governance in political literature.

This semantic difference has led to two major fallacies among Muslims, and this issue has not remained confined to political literature; it has deepened, leading to intellectual and practical distortions. These two fallacies are:

1. The Fallacy of Essence and Attribute: In contemporary logic, a prominent example of this fallacy is often discussed concerning Darwin’s theory. When someone, instead of focusing on and addressing the essence, takes one of its attributes and equates it with the entirety and nature of the concept, this fallacy occurs. This is a very dangerous fallacy. Darwin wanted to analyze all of humanity based on the laws he deduced from the world of biology.
2. The Fallacy of Part and Whole: This fallacy occurs when judgments are derived from a part and then generalized to the whole.

Examining a Fundamental Question

Now, the question is: if we want to move beyond this superficiality in political literature and start from the Islamic epistemological source — the Quran — to organize political literature, what should we do?

The suggestion that can be made, and based on which we can identify and outline the foundational elements of the Quran’s political knowledge, is to return to the Quran’s conceptual and semantic system and begin this journey from the essence of the Quran’s political thought. We need to review the theoretical foundations in order to extract the precise concepts related to governance that exist in Islamic literature and to distinguish and explain their differences from contemporary literature. In this process, alongside the Quran’s semantic framework, the life and sayings of the Imams (peace be upon them) are also invaluable guides.

Three Layers of the Quran’s Lexical System

To properly delve into the depth of the Quran’s governance thought and to gain a correct understanding, three layers of the Quran’s lexical and conceptual system must be studied and examined carefully. This will help identify the reduction that has occurred and allow us to establish the correct paradigm. These three layers are:

1. The Language of the Holy Quran in the Realm of the Philosophy of Religion:
   When discussing religious governance, the first task is to clarify what this concept means within the Quranic context.
2. Examination and Elaboration on the Philosophy of Imamate:
   The Quran contains a framework of key concepts that embody the essence of Imamate thought and depict the structure of the Imamate system within existence.
3. Attention to the Concepts that the Quran Presents Regarding Governance:
   Through the lens of the previous two stages, the precise meanings of the Quran’s political terminology can be extracted.

Examining the First Layer: Quranic Language Related to the Philosophy of Religion

While the vocabulary of the Quran may not be terminological in the technical sense, it is foundational. This means that, although we cannot demonstrate that the Quran creates technical terms in the conventional sense, it does establish foundational meanings through its definitive usage, making it a foundational text (nas mu’assis). This foundation and worldview serve as the basis for the formation of a civilization. From this perspective, the philosophy of religion according to the Quran must be independently discovered, relying on its own semantic system.

Sometimes, in this process, interpretations (ta’wil) have been made, and these words have been interpreted in their conventional, scientific, or terminological senses, which is incorrect and constitutes an interpretation based on personal opinion (tafsir bi’r-ra’y). Therefore, according to the authentic Quranic semantic approach, the conceptual framework of the Quran should be viewed through this lens in all these layers.

We need to examine how the Quran defines and interprets the truth and position of religion, the foundations and purposes of religion, the world, and humanity. In this process, several key terms will be highlighted. By examining them, a new perspective emerges, which is quite different from how they have been reinterpreted in the theological and jurisprudential literature of Muslims.

Important Terms in the Philosophy of Religion in the Holy Quran

1. Religion (Dīn):

The first term to be examined in the realm of the philosophy of religion in the Quran is the term dīn (religion) itself. From the perspective of the Quran, as understood from various verses, this term is fundamentally and inseparably connected with the essence of humanity and the system of global relationships. The Quran, in verse 30 of Surah Rum, states:

فَأَقِمْ وَجْهَكَ لِلدِّینِ حَنِیفاً فِطْرَةَ اللَّهِ الَّتِي فَطَرَ النَّاسَ عَلَیْهَا لَا تَبْدِیلَ لِخَلْقِ اللَّهِ ذَلِكَ الدِّینُ الْقَیِّمُ وَلَكِنَّ أَكْثَرَ النَّاسِ لَا یَعْلَمُونَ

So set your face toward the religion, inclining to truth. [Adhere to] the fitrah of Allah upon which He has created [all] people. No change should there be in the creation of Allah. That is the correct religion, but most of the people do not know.

Here, dīn is defined and described as being intertwined with the creation of humanity. The verse presents dīn as a type of human creation, meaning that religion itself is a specific kind of creation that God has brought forth. It does not state that religion is merely a consequence of a natural order, but rather that religion itself is a kind of creation.

In other verses, dīn is connected with the system of existence and the relationships within it. For example, in verse 83 of Surah Aal ‘Imran, it states:

أَفَغَیْرَ دِینِ اللَّهِ یَبْغُونَ وَلَهُ أَسْلَمَ مَنْ فِي السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضِ طَوْعًا وَكَرْهًا وَإِلَیْهِ یُرْجَعُونَ

So is it other than the religion of Allah they desire, while to Him have submitted [all] those within the heavens and earth, willingly or by compulsion, and to Him they will be returned?

Here, it is stated that does humanity seek anything other than the religion of God? While the religion of God is embedded in this world. In narrations related to this verse, it is mentioned that this religion refers to Tawhid (monotheism).

My father, may Allah have mercy on him, said: Sa’d ibn Abdullah narrated to us from Ibrahim ibn Hashim and Ya’qub ibn Yazid, both from Ibn Faddal, from Ibn Bukayr, from Zurara, from Abu Abdullah (a), who said: I heard him say regarding the verse of the Almighty, ‘And to Him have submitted [all] those within the heavens and earth, willingly or by compulsion’ (Quran 3:83), that it refers to their monotheism (Tawhid) of Allah, the Almighty.” (Kitab al-Tawhid, p. 46)

In the Quran, a distinction is made between dīn and kitab with shari’a (law) and manhaj (methodology).

In Surah al-Ma’idah, verse 48, the system of sending messengers and revealing books is centred on a mission that affirms each other and is sequentially continuous. As history progresses, the program of religion in its broader scope expands. This is indicated in the verse:

فَاحْكُمْ بَيْنَهُمْ بِمَا أَنْزَلَ اللَّهُ

“So judge between them by what Allah has revealed.”

The command of Allah is broader than what is stated in jurisprudential rulings, and one of the instances of reduction in jurisprudence is this very word hukm.

Shari’a and manhaj, which are specific to each group, are different from the knowledge of the book (kitab) and wisdom (hikmah), which remain constant. Even though they expand, their essence does not change and relates to the command of truth (amr al-haqq), as mentioned in the Quran. The ultimate goal of this religion, as stated by the Quran, is growth (rushd), which is a key concept tied to dīn in its deep meaning.

2. Growth (Rushd):

The next term to be examined is rushd. The primary function of the kitab, which is the essence of religion, is to guide towards growth. In other verses of the Quran, such as verse 186 of Surah Al-Baqarah, it says:

وَإِذَا سَأَلَكَ عِبَادِي عَنِّي فَإِنِّي قَرِيبٌ أُجِيبُ دَعْوَةَ الدَّاعِ إِذَا دَعَانِ فَلْيَسْتَجِيبُوا لِي وَلْيُؤْمِنُوا بِي لَعَلَّهُمْ يَرْشُدُونَ

“And when My servants ask you concerning Me, indeed I am near. I respond to the invocation of the supplicant when he calls upon Me. So let them respond to Me [by obedience] and believe in Me that they may be rightly guided [towards growth].”

This verse indicates that the ultimate goal of religious and faithful movement is rushd.

Alongside the concept of rushd, there are several other Quranic terms that clarify this concept and link it with human nature and development. Terms such as falah (success)¹ and fawz (triumph) are key words that indicate rushd and are prerequisites for human perfection.

3. Guidance (Hidayah):

The third key term is hidayah (guidance), which has a precise and broad meaning in the Quran. It is a deep concept that is intertwined with all aspects of human life.

قالَ رَبُّنَا الَّذِي أَعْطَى كُلَّ شَيْءٍ خَلْقَهُ ثُمَّ هَدَى

“Our Lord is He who gave each thing its form and then guided [it].”

This verse from Surah Taha demonstrates that everything reaches its existential, natural, and ontological system within the context of guidance towards rushd (growth).

4. Faith (Iman)

The fourth key term is Iman. In the Quranic knowledge system, faith is the entry point for humans on the path of growth, and growth begins with faith. Since Iman is defined as belief, one of the common misunderstandings has been to interpret this belief in its logical sense. However, the Quran considers Iman to be a concept that comes after knowledge, and while knowledge is seen as a precursor to success and salvation, the main factor in achieving Falah is Iman.

The Quran, in approximately eight verses, highlights the contrast between knowledge and faith, indicating that while some people possess knowledge, they are still deficient in faith. In verse 14 of Surah al-Naml, the Quran points out that even though these individuals were certain, they still denied the truth:

وَجَحَدُوا بِهَا وَاسْتَيْقَنَتْهَا أَنفُسُهُمْ ظُلْمًا وَعُلُوًّا

“And they rejected them, while their [inner] selves were convinced thereof, out of injustice and haughtiness.”

This shows that Iman is an existential stage within a person that must occur, an event that takes place in the realm of human existence.

Surah al-Asr is a prelude to this concept, where the exception is not those who know, but those who believe, as they are the ones who are not at a loss. It is through faith that one is saved from loss.

5. Will and Free Choice:

The next key term in the philosophy of religion according to the Quran is Irada (will) and Ikhtiyar (free choice). Religious practice and the journey of growth are grounded in human will and choice. The most famous verse in this regard is verse 256 of Surah al-Baqarah:

لَا إِكْرَاهَ فِي الدِّينِ قَدْ تَبَيَّنَ الرُّشْدُ مِنَ الْغَيِّ

“There shall be no compulsion in [acceptance of] the religion. The right course has become clear from the wrong.”

Here, rushd is contrasted with error, which is the ultimate goal of religion. The denial of compulsion in religion pertains to the essence of religion, and this lack of compulsion is ontological, meaning that religious practice and faith are realized through free will.

Even the Prophet (p) is described as a reminder in this path, with no control or coercion. Even divine guidance aligns with human will and choice and does not conflict with it. The Quran states:

إِنَّا هَدَيْنَاهُ السَّبِيلَ إِمَّا شَاكِرًا وَإِمَّا كَفُورًا

“Indeed, We guided him to the way, be he grateful or be he ungrateful.”

6 & 7. World (Dunya) and Hereafter (Akhirah):

Two other terms that are related not only to the philosophy of religion but also to the philosophy of Imamate and governance are Dunya (the worldly life) and Akhirah (the hereafter). It seems that here, too, we are facing a reduction in theological, philosophical, jurisprudential, and ethical understanding. The image that the Quran presents of the Dunya and Akhirah is quite unique and astonishing!

The Quran, instead of the commonly understood concept of two separate realms—Dunya and Akhirah—speaks of two forms of life: the life of this world and the life of the hereafter. These two lives in the Quran are not portrayed as distinct, self-contained realms. The Quran frequently illustrates the relationship between Dunya and Akhirah, depicting them as two interconnected lives within a single ontological framework.

While the life of the hereafter has different characteristics from the worldly life, the human being who lives in this world is not separated from the life of the hereafter. Although there are specific dynamics that manifest in this world and certain characteristics that appear in the realm of the hereafter, at present, in this worldly life, all the features of the life of the hereafter are also present within a human being. This means that a person currently exists in both the life of this world and the hereafter simultaneously, and these two lives are interrelated.

If an Imamate system is to be established in this world, this system of Imamate will form a historical human connection from the past to the future, intertwining throughout this entire system.

In the Quran, everything that happens in the worldly life has a direct impact on the life of the hereafter, and the hereafter influences the present conditions in the worldly life.

The outward aspect of life is the life of this world, while the inward aspect of life is the life of the hereafter.

8 & 9. Truth (Haqq) and Falsehood (Batil):

The next terms in this context are Haqq (truth) and Batil (falsehood). In the logic of the Quran, Haqq and Batil represent existential and ontological relationships throughout the entire world. The world is a world of Haqq and Batil, and the system of the universe revolves around these two existential relationships.

10. Truthfulness (Sidq):

In the Quran, Sidq (truthfulness) differs from the concept of a statement corresponding to reality, which is often the common understanding of truth. This common understanding is only a part of the Quranic concept of Sidq. In the Quran, Sidq is an ontological and anthropological concept; it is not merely about speech corresponding to reality, but rather about the existential movement of a person that aligns with the relationships of Haqq (truth) in the world. It is this alignment that reflects true Sidq.

Examining the Second Layer: The Lexical System of the Philosophy of Imamate

In the Quran, within the broader framework of religious understanding and the depiction of the entire existence, the principle of Imamate is introduced. This is a general and extensive principle, indicating that human existence and human relationships do not take shape except around an Imam. The two streams of Imams of disbelief and Imams of faith represent two ongoing currents in the philosophy of history.

The Concept of Ummah:

Here, the Quran presents the concept of Ummah alongside Imamate. This concept, too, has been reduced in meaning. Ummah has been interpreted as a political community, which contradicts the Quranic meaning. On the other hand, Imamate has also been reduced from its Quranic meaning to a political and leadership role.

The Concept of Hukm (Judgment):

This concept, although deeply connected with the Quranic meaning, has been reduced in its jurisprudential and political understanding. Wherever the Quran discusses Din in its profound sense, it also refers to the command to “judge by what Allah has revealed”.

The Concept of Khilafah and Istikhlaf:

The Quranic concept of Khilafah (succession) is different from the concept discussed in theological discourse and goes beyond it.

There are several other concepts in this context as well, such as Amr (command), Wilayah and Tawalli (allegiance), Faridha (obligation), Adl (justice), Qasd (intention), and Dhulm (oppression). These concepts also fit within the framework of the philosophy of Imamate.

Another Fallacy in the Governance Discussion

In addition to the conceptual reduction, another fallacy has occurred in the discussion of governance that also requires careful consideration and critique. Some individuals, in response to this reduction, have fallen into an opposing fallacy. Due to this reduction, they have offered a secular interpretation of governance. They argue that since these concepts, due to their reduction, differ from their Quranic meanings, they must be entirely different from the Quranic meanings and have no connection to them. As a result, they conclude that political governance has no relation to Imamate, religious practice, or human perfection.

This is another serious fallacy that has emerged in the secular and mundane interpretation of governance. This approach has a long history within Sunni thought, where in the contemporary era, governance has been separated from religion.

This approach can be seen among those who advocate for a division between political and religious authority, asserting that these are two separate domains. One example of this can be found among certain groups of Sunnis who acknowledge the twelve Imams, who believe that Wilayah pertains to spiritual matters and Khilafah pertains to worldly authority.

Additionally, this interpretation was prevalent among modernist thinkers after the Constitutional Revolution (Mashruteh). Traces of this mindset can even be observed in some traditional religious schools of thought.

In the philosophy of Imamate, we aim to convey that Quranic religious practice, when extended, defines an Imamate that encompasses all aspects of both worldly and spiritual life. Any separation in these aspects leads to a fallacy.

1. Falah is used for someone whose potential and capacity for growth have reached their full potential and have been fully realized.