By Shaykh Rasul Jafariyan¹

Abstract

The history of civilization is a relatively new branch within the field of history. In the historical tradition of Muslim societies, there has generally not been a civilizational perspective on history. Instead, historical writing has primarily focused on political narratives and, at times, static social analyses. In contrast, over the past two centuries, European historians have actively engaged in historical studies of civilization, often framing their discussions in terms of decline or progress. This approach led Western scholars to develop a civilizational perspective not only on their own societies but also on other nations and cultures. Within the field of Islamic and Middle Eastern studies, this civilizational approach gave rise to the study of Islamic civilization as a distinct academic discipline. The first books on the history of Islamic and Arab civilization were written by Western scholars, marking the beginning of Islamic civilization studies as a formal discipline. Over time, works on the history of Islamic civilization were translated from European languages into Arabic and, eventually, into Persian. This article focuses on analyzing the development of Islamic civilization studies, examining the earliest writings on Islamic civilization and their significance in shaping the field.

Introduction

It is never too late to define civilization. One could argue that the time when everything had to be defined first before discussing it has passed. Today, we must understand a subject or issue within its historical context before defining it. Many scholars believe that concepts have a life of their own—they evolve over time and change in form and content. The concept of civilization is no exception. Scholars have proposed dozens of definitions for civilization and have distinguished it from culture. They argue that while culture is one entity, civilization is another.

In its modern sense, civilization is a contemporary concept. In today’s world, where technology is central, definitions of civilization emphasize systematic material progress and advancement. It is clear that at all levels and for all people, culture serves as the foundation of civilization, while spirituality and ethics remain its core pillars.

However, in modern definitions of civilization, the fundamental aspect is material progress—it is the essential criterion for defining and realizing civilization. In our time, the concept of development has sometimes become even more significant than civilization itself. This is because, in discussions of ethics and spirituality, civilization is often seen as incomplete without material progress, such as technology, engineering, and industry. If these elements are absent, no one would consider a society to be “civilized”—even if spirituality and morality are present.

It is similar to the idea that a beautiful building must exist for culture, morality, and spirituality to thrive inside it. If there is no building at all, then according to modern definitions of civilization, even with the presence of ethics and spirituality, there is no civilization. This modern conception of civilization, which originated in the West, has now become globalized. Today, all governments and nations strive for “development”, a concept that was incomprehensible to many nations just a few decades ago.

Now, almost no one opposes this modern definition of civilization, although there are numerous debates about its interpretation. Some view it as Western and seek to indigenize it to make it more compatible with their cultural identity. Others long for the past, when civilization was seen as more spiritual, and resent how materialistic humanity has become. While these debates are extensive, our discussion here is primarily historical, focusing on the early writings on Islamic civilization.

Historically, Muslims did not speak about civilization. Even today, when we discuss civilization, we do so according to the modern definitions shaped in the West, which have now become universal. Civilization, as progress, is what separates the modern world from the past. The difference between the past and present is that, while social life was understood in earlier times, it was not seen as dynamic, evolving, or progressive. Perhaps this was because the world itself was perceived as static.

However, with the invention of steam power, followed by the rise of electricity, and later the development of atomic energy, along with countless other scientific and technological advancements, a dramatic transformation in material progress and the dynamism of civilization took place. The construction of large ships, airplanes, space shuttles, expanding cities, highways, bridges, and many other technological marvels—which brought speed, precision, and convenience—astonished the world.

Today, when Muslims discuss civilization, they do so within this framework, while trying to reconcile it with their religious beliefs. When the concept of civilization first emerged and its manifestations entered Islamic lands, many Muslims struggled to accept and adapt to it. Here, civilization was understood as a new concept, representing modernization and progress—a radical shift from traditional ways of life.

Beyond its practical implications, the origin of this civilization was also a major concern. The first challenge was its identity—many Muslims initially viewed Western civilization as closely linked to unbelief (kufr). Another major concern was the fear of foreign dominance. Muslims observed that this new civilization and its instruments could only be operated by Westerners or their advisors, leading to concerns about colonial control.

Additionally, there was a cultural perception of material progress as a pursuit of worldly pleasure. Many saw civilization as hedonistic, associating it with worldly indulgence rather than spiritual or religious values. There were also concerns about Muslim dignity—many felt that by accepting this new civilization, they were being forced to adopt something foreign to their own identity.

These various factors contributed to the initial resistance to modern civilization among Muslims, delaying the acceptance of “civilizational thinking” in Islamic societies. This hesitation was understandable—one of the major fears was that this new civilization, which carried its own religious and ethical values, would clash with Islam. Different interpretations emerged, and those who supported both Islam and civilization sought to develop integrated perspectives—simultaneously critiquing the West while exploring ways to harmonize Islam with civilization.

The Study of Civilization is a New Branch of Historical Sciences

The history of civilization is a relatively recent field in the discipline of history, meaning it does not have a long tradition. Unlike political history or fields related to the study of biographical accounts and historical figures, civilization was not initially examined as an independent subject in historical studies. One could argue that Ibn Khaldun was the first to introduce the concept of civilization, though not from a historical perspective but rather from a sociological one.

In the historical tradition of Muslims, there was no civilizational perspective on history; rather, the dominant approach was political history or, at best, non-dynamic social history of the past. A civilizational approach views history through the lens of progress, considering all factors contributing to development throughout history.

The lack of a civilizational perspective in Islamic historiography is evident from the absence of necessary terminology in the classical tradition. Even the word “tamaddun” (تمدن)—which literally means urbanization—has only recently come to signify progress, development, and advancement. In classical Islamic literature, the term was used strictly in its literal sense, without its modern technical connotation.

The term “al-ḥaḍārah” (الحضارة), meaning urbanization accompanied by progress and growth, was frequently used by Ibn Khaldun in his works on social sciences. However, it is interesting to note that after Ibn Khaldun, this term was no longer used in the sense of civilization and progress until recent times. Ibn Khaldun also used the term “al-ʿumrān” (العمران), but this term did not gain popularity in later Islamic scholarship. All of this indicates that Ibn Khaldun’s ideas did not have deep roots among Muslim scholars, nor were they widely adopted after him.

It appears that the study of civilization as a branch of historical sciences is a late and recent development. In the distant past, history was not examined through a civilizational lens. While we have books on political history, literary history, and social history, there were no formal works on the history of civilization.

One possible reason for this is that in ancient civilizations, the concept of evolutionary progress, as understood in modern civilization, was either nonexistent or extremely rare. Instead, historical thinking was cyclical or influenced by millennialist perspectives. In monotheistic religions, spiritual and eternal progress was emphasized, and the material world was not seen as having independent value or significance.

In the modern era, at least from the perspective of some thinkers, civilization has become a philosophy of human life, based on new theories of materialism, hedonism, and secularism. At the same time, it has also developed into an academic discipline within historical studies.

This development has, at least theoretically, created a clear distinction between ancient and modern human life, leading some scholars to define modern humanity as domineering, pleasure-seeking, and expansionist, in contrast to ancient humanity.

The Transfer of Civilizational Studies to Eastern Countries (Orientalism and the Study of Muslim Civilization)

The scientific-historical approach to the history of civilization gained significant attention among European historians of the past two centuries. Their analysis focused on the rise and decline of civilizations, examining whether nations were on a path of progress or deterioration. Many European historians specialized in the history of civilization, a trend that did not exist in earlier times, though some historical works contained elements of civilizational interest.

This civilizational approach to history in Islamic and Middle Eastern studies eventually led to the establishment of Islamic civilization studies as an academic field. In Iran today, the field of history of culture and civilization has been developed, with efforts to reinterpret the past through a civilizational perspective and conduct research accordingly.

Western scholars were the first to introduce civilizational historiography, both about themselves and other nations. Initially, they wrote travelogues to document their encounters with other cultures. Over time, this exploratory process evolved into a systematic, academic approach, leading to broad and detailed studies on the history of civilization across various regions.

A major area of Western scholarship was Orientalism, particularly the study of the Islamic world. Beginning in the 19th century—and even before that—European scholars dedicated themselves to studying Arabic language, literature, and Islamic culture and civilization. The first books on the history of Islamic and Arab civilization were written by Western historians, marking the emergence of Islamic civilization studies as a formal discipline.

Although Muslim scholars had engaged with general cultural discussions within Islamic thought, the formal study of civilization as an independent field had not taken shape, largely because of the intellectual and historical circumstances mentioned earlier.

The first civilizational writings were imported from the West into the Arab world, where they were translated in the Maghreb and Egypt. These works initially focused on European civilization and its evolution, but over time, they also began examining Islamic civilization—first superficially, then with increasing depth and focus.

Western attitudes toward Islam had been shaped by historical conflicts dating back to the early Islamic conquests, when Muslims expanded into Christian territories in the Levant and even reached Constantinople. Naturally, these historical tensions influenced European perspectives on Islam and its civilization. However, from the 16th and 17th centuries onward, a scientific approach gradually emerged alongside older biases.

During this period, numerous travelogues were written, and a large number of Arabic manuscripts were brought to Europe. These developments laid the foundation for Orientalist studies, which included research on Eastern civilization and the history of science in the Muslim world. Through translations of Western scholarly works, civilizational studies spread to the Arab world, the Indian subcontinent, and later Iran. This broader history of Orientalism provides the context for the emergence of Islamic civilization studies.

Some of these Western writings were general works, which resonated strongly with Eastern audiences. In particular, during the 19th century, certain Western scholars began praising Islamic civilization, which greatly appealed to Muslim intellectuals. These Western discussions of Islamic civilization had both academic motives and political agendas. Some scholars engaged in this research as part of a critique of the Christian Church, seeking to challenge Western religious orthodoxy by highlighting the achievements of Islamic civilization.

In fact, a portion of Western civilizational scholarship in the 19th century was intended for domestic audiences, aiming to lay the groundwork for change within the West itself. Regardless of these underlying motives, these works were widely circulated, and Muslims became increasingly aware of them.

From Gustave Le Bon to Adam Mez

Gradually, books on the history of Islamic and Arab civilization were translated from European languages into Arabic, and later, they were translated into Persian. One of the most influential works was Gustave Le Bon’s The Civilization of Islam and the Arabs, which had a significant impact.

This book was written in 1884 by the French scholar and physician Gustave Le Bon (b. 1841). According to its translator, the book responds to many of the criticisms that Europeans had raised against Islam and Islamic civilization. Additionally, Le Bon argues that Islamic laws and institutions were, given their historical context, the best possible systems.

The translator of this work was Sayyid Muhammad Taqi Fakhr Da’i Gilani, who translated it while teaching literature in India. This translation was first published in 1934 (1313 SH) at the Majlis Printing House, with the support of a parliamentary representative and Ali Asghar Hekmat.

Later, in 1941 (1320 SH), the book was reprinted with the phrase “Published by the Commission for Education” added to its cover, indicating that the government had sponsored its publication. Interestingly, the Persian translation was based on an Urdu translation of the original French text—a fact mentioned by the translator in his introduction. In 1973 (1352 SH), a critical analysis of Gustave Le Bon’s book and Jurji Zaydan’s works was published in Iran.

In the early 20th century, Adam Mez wrote The Renaissance of Islam in the Fourth Century Hijri (Al-Ḥaḍārah al-Islāmiyyah fī al-Qarn al-Rābiʿ al-Hijrī), which was translated into Arabic in 1941 (1360 AH) in Cairo. In 1985 (1364 SH), Alireza Zekavati translated this book from Arabic into Persian, and it was published in two volumes by Amir Kabir Publications. A shorter Persian translation had already been published in 1964 (1343 SH) by Mohammad Hossein Estakhr in a single volume.

Compared to Gustave Le Bon’s book, Adam Mez’s work was of a higher scholarly calibre, as it was based on an extensive collection of Islamic sources to explore Islamic civilization. The book covers various aspects of Islamic civilization, including:

• Political systems
• Theology and sects
• Material sciences and civilization, such as geography, agriculture, industries, trade, maritime and land routes, and other related topics.

In addition to works explicitly titled “civilization” or “ḥaḍārah”, several other books were written in the West on Islamic civilization—some of which were later translated into Arabic. One notable example is Present Conditions of the Islamic World (Ḥāḍir al-ʿĀlam al-Islāmī), written by Lothrop Stoddard and expanded by the renowned Arab writer Amir Shakib Arslan. The book was translated into Arabic by ʿAjjāj Nuwayhiḍ, published in two volumes (409 + 402 pages) in 1925 (1343 AH / 1303 SH).

The term “Islamic World” was primarily used by Western scholars to distinguish Muslim-majority nations from non-Muslim nations. The color green was also chosen to symbolize the Islamic world—a concept illustrated by a map published in this book. The book mainly focuses on the current geography of the Islamic world, but it also analyzes its civilizational status. Interestingly, the first chapter is titled “The Islamic Awakening” (Al-Yaqẓah al-Islāmiyyah) (Vol. 1, pp. 33–59).

Vasily Bartold and Islamic Culture and Civilization

The renowned Russian Orientalist Vasily Vladimirovich Bartold (1869–1930) was a highly influential Russian scholar of Islamic studies. Among his many significant contributions, he wrote a book on Islamic culture and civilization, which was first published in 1918. This concise yet valuable book was translated into Tatar in 1922 by Jamal Walidi, into Uzbek in 1927, and later into Urdu and English.

Fuat Köprülü translated the book into Turkish in 1940, making it highly influential among Turkish, Tatar, and Uzbek Muslims. In August 1941 (1320 SH / Jumada al-Thani 1360 AH), ʿA. Ganjahʾi translated the book into Persian, serializing it in Āyīn-e Islām (The Islam Journal), Year 3, Issues 2–13.

In his introduction, Ganjahʾi wrote:

“Beyond its importance in the history of Islamic civilization, this book is particularly significant for understanding Iran’s influence on the Islamic world. For this reason, I found it appropriate to translate it into Persian.”

In his introduction, he also provided a biography of Bartold and his works before starting the translation. In 1978 (1357 SH), Bartold’s book was published under the title “Muslim Culture and Civilization”, translated by Ali Akbar Diyanat.

The introduction states that the book was, first translated into English by Shahid Suhrawardi in Calcutta in 1934, later translated into Turkish by Köprülü in 1940 and also translated into French. Additionally, the first section and part of the second section were translated into Persian by Taheri Shihab under the title History of Islamic Civilization.

Diyanat notes that he was unaware of Taheri Shihab’s translation when preparing his own. He explains that his translation was based on the Turkish text while being compared to the English version (Introduction, p. 6). Interestingly, he does not mention the earlier Persian translation by ʿA. Ganjahʾi, which was also incomplete. Diyanat’s 167-page translation was eventually published.

In 2010 (1389 SH), the Institute for Humanities Research published a new Persian translation of Bartold’s work, under the title “Islamic Culture”, translated by Leila Rubin Shah. However, this edition was highly problematic because it lacked any introduction and did not acknowledge previous translations.

Based on Diyanat’s translation, the book is divided into six sections:

1. Christian East and Its Importance for Islam
2. The Caliphate and the Beginnings of Arab Civilization
3. Baghdad and the Later Flourishing of Arab Civilization
4. Iranian Civilization and Its Influence on Other Islamic Countries
5. The Impact of Mongol Conquests on Iranian Civilization
6. The Islamic World After the 15th Century

This logical structure reveals Bartold’s attempt to present a chronological and thematic analysis of Islamic civilization. The Arabic translation of this book, titled Tārīkh al-Ḥaḍārah al-Islāmiyyah (The History of Islamic Civilization), was translated by Hamza Tahir and published by Ain for Studies and Human and Social Research in 2013. This Arabic edition was later translated into Turkish.

In the next phase, Arab writers began producing works on Islamic civilization, with **one of the earliest and most well-known being Jurji Zaydan’s Tārīkh al-Tamaddun al-Islāmī (The History of Islamic Civilization)*.

A 1902 edition of the book that I examined states on its cover that it discusses:

• The formation of the Islamic state
• Administrative, political, financial, and military systems
• The expansion of Islamic territories
• Wealth, architecture, poetry, literature, ethics, and customs

In such works, Islamic civilization was often fully equated with Arab civilization. Zaydan’s book was published in four volumes, with the fourth volume released in 1905. His work also sparked reactions across the Islamic world. For example, Shibli Nomani wrote a critique of the book, which was published in 1912 (1330 AH). Zaydan’s Tārīkh al-Tamaddun al-Islāmī was later translated into Persian by Ali Jawahir al-Kalam and published by Amir Kabir Publications.

Among European books on Islamic civilization, another notable work is The Institutions of Islamic Civilization, written by Stanislas Guyard and translated into Persian by Fakhr al-Din Tabataba’i, published in 1947 (1326 SH). The desire to understand European civilization also emerged in the Arab world. Such efforts helped introduce modern civilizational concepts to Arab intellectuals.

One example is Al-Taḥfah al-Adabiyyah fī Tārīkh Tamaddun al-Mamālik al-Urūbawiyyah (The Literary Treatise on the History of the Civilization of European Kingdoms), written by Minister and scholar Khawaja Hanin Niʿmatullah Khuri. This book was published in Alexandria in 1877 and spans 470 pages.

It belongs to an era when Egypt was rapidly modernizing and required new discussions on Islamic civilization. Another book, written by a Tunisian scholar on Europe, also highlights Maghrebis’ interest in Western civilization. This work, Aqwam al-Masālik fī Maʿrifat Aḥwāl al-Mamālik (The Best Paths to Understanding the Conditions of Nations), was authored by Khayr al-Dīn Pasha al-Tunisi in 1867 (1284 AH) and published the following year.

Surprisingly, this book was also translated into Persian in Isfahan by Mirza Haidar Ali Isfahani, known as Fakhr al-Adibāʾ. A copy of this translation is preserved in the Ibn Miskawayh Library in Isfahan.

Naturally, Europeans also wrote extensively about their own civilization and progress, and many of these works were translated into Arabic, providing Arab audiences with access to European ideas on civilization. One notable example is Tārīkh al-Tamaddun al-Ḥadīth (The History of Modern Civilization), written by Charles Seignobos, a professor at the University of Paris. The Arabic translation of this book was published in Egypt in 1909, spanning 304 pages. Interestingly, the translator chose to remain anonymous, stating that the translation was exclusively commissioned for the journal Al-Hilāl.

In Iran, the history of Western civilization was deemed important enough to be included in school curricula. For example, the historian Abbas Iqbal wrote a textbook on Western civilization for sixth-year high school students.

The second edition of this textbook was published in 1946 (1325 SH). The book contains 364 pages on Western civilization, with an additional 74 pages dedicated to discussing the introduction of modern civilization into Iran, from the Safavid era to the present.

Another textbook on Western civilization, written by Abbas Parviz for sixth-year humanities students, was published in 218 pages. The edition I examined was printed in 1951 (1330 SH), but the first edition was likely published earlier. When Western authors criticized Islam’s social and civilizational aspects, Muslim scholars wrote counterarguments in response. An example of this is Al-Islām Rūḥ al-Madaniyyah aw al-Dīn al-Islāmī (Islam as the Spirit of Civilization, or the Islamic Religion), written by Mustafa al-Ghalayini and published in 1908 in 290 pages.

Gradually, Arabs took the initiative in writing about Islamic civilization themselves, sometimes integrating their discussions with studies on Islamic thought.

For example, the works of Ahmad Amin, such as, Fajr al-Islām (The Dawn of Islam), Ḍuḥā al-Islām (The Morning of Islam), and Ẓuhr al-Islām (The Noon of Islam). These books belong to this genre, though they often repeat familiar themes and lack depth.

In the past three to four decades, new methodological approaches have emerged among Arab scholars, particularly in North Africa and the Levant, aimed at developing civilizational theories for studying the past of Arab-Islamic civilization.

A key example of this trend is the work of scholars such as Mohammed Arkoun and Mohammed Abed al-Jabri. These studies fall under the category of “Naqd al-Turāth” (Critique of Heritage), a field in which modern epistemological methods are used to reinterpret the legacy of Muslim civilizations. These new studies are framed within the larger discourse of underdevelopment, exploring the causes of decline and the historical trajectory of Islamic civilization.

Muḥammad Kurd ʿAlī (d. 1953) and His Book Al-Islām wa al-Ḥaḍārah al-ʿArabiyyah

Among the well-known Arab intellectuals who wrote about Islamic civilization during and after Jurji Zaydan’s time was Muḥammad Kurd ʿAlī (1876–1953). He was widely recognized for his book Khuṭaṭ al-Shām, which provided a detailed account of the history and geography of Greater Syria—one of the oldest centers of human civilization, including the Islamic period. Kurd ʿAlī served twice as Syria’s Minister of Culture and was a prominent cultural figure from the Levant.

His book Al-Islām wa al-Ḥaḍārah al-ʿArabiyyah was published in two volumes in 1934 by Dār al-Kutub al-Miṣriyyah in Cairo, a state-run publishing house.

Kurd ʿAlī was both an Arab nationalist and an Islamic thinker, and like other scholars of Islamic civilization, he viewed Arab culture as the primary foundation of civilization. He was a strong critic of Orientalists, often attacking their views on Islam and Islamic civilization. In fact, as Erwin argues, the main purpose of this book was to correct the Orientalists’ misinterpretations of Islam and Islamic civilization (Dangerous Knowledge, trans. Mohammad Dehghani, Tehran, 2020, pp. 363–365).

A quick look at the book’s table of contents reveals Kurd ʿAlī’s perspective on Islamic civilization:

• Al-ʿAwāmil fī Jafāʾ al-Gharbiyyīn (Factors Behind Westerners’ Bias Against Islamic Civilization) (Al-Islām wa al-Ḥaḍārah al-ʿArabiyyah, 1/2)
• Pages 13–33 critique Orientalist views on Islamic civilization, including figures such as Renan and others
• The next section discusses Shuʿūbiyyah, with an emphasis on Orientalist interpretations of anti-Arab movements
• Kalimāt li-ʿUlamāʾ Afransiyyīn, wa Iṭāliyyīn, wa Barīṭāniyyīn wa Rūsiyyīn (Statements from French, Italian, British, and Russian Scholars) (p. 52)
• A *response to Shuʿūbiyyah criticisms of Arab civilization and Islam
• A historical analysis of Arab civilization before and after Islam
• An attempt to depict Arabs as a civilized people
• References to Western scholars who acknowledged certain positive aspects of Islamic civilization
• A section on the state of the West during Islam’s early rise, arguing that when Islamic civilization was flourishing, Europe was in ruins (p. 187)
• The influence of Arabs on non-Arab lands
• The impact of Arab culture on the West
• The influence of Arabic poetry on the West
• An overview of Arab civilization in Al-Andalus
• A report on the Crusades
• The Mongol impact on Arab civilization
• The effects of European colonialism on Muslim lands (p. 317)

The final section of Volume 1 discusses the impact of Western civilization on Arab lands (p. 344). The second volume of Kurd ʿAlī’s book focuses on sciences and schools of thought in Islam, administration in Islam, and politics in Islam.

This volume is 584 pages long and reflects a strong anti-Western bias, combined with unreserved praise of Islamic civilization. Although the book allows for minor criticisms, its primary focus is on Arab civilization, presenting a highly Arab-centric perspective on Islamic history.

Early Discussions on Civilization in Persian Texts

Persian-speaking intellectuals—both in Iran and the Indian subcontinent—were increasingly drawn to the study of Western civilization, particularly in response to the astonishing technological advancements emerging from the West.

The newspaper Ḥabl al-Matīn played a key role in introducing such discussions, publishing numerous articles and essays on civilization. These writings were later compiled into a book. Independent treatises were also written on this subject, and some of these are cataloged in the introduction to Qānūn-i Qazvīnī, itself an example of such works.

From 1850 CE (1250 AH) onward, especially in the second half of the Naseri era (under Naser al-Din Shah Qajar), Persian political and social writings increasingly addressed civilization. Institutions like Dār al-Funūn (Persia’s first modern school) were built upon the intellectual foundations emerging from these discussions.

However, it took a long time before Iranian minds became fully prepared for systematic debates on civilization. Below are some examples of early Persian works that reflect an increasing interest in Islamic civilization during this period. One of the earliest Persian works using the word tamaddun (civilization) in its title was Uṣūl-i Tamaddun (Principles of Civilization) by Mirza Malkum Khan, published in 1907 (1325 AH). In this book, Malkum Khan discusses European progress while also examining Iran’s underdevelopment and the steps needed for modernization.

Before the Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911), figures such as Akhundzadeh, Mirza Aqa Khan Kermani, and Talibov wrote extensively on civilization. During the Constitutional period, debates on civilization became highly serious, particularly in political and social treatises. Many intellectual groups structured their discussions around:

1. Iran’s current state of backwardness
2. Its glorious past
3. The necessity of borrowing from the West
4. The dangers of excessive Westernization
5. The imperative of stepping onto the path of civilization

One example is the treatise Miftāḥ al-Tamaddun fī Siyāsat al-Mudun (The Key to Civilization in Urban Politics), written by Mirza Muhammad Muʿīn al-Islām Behbahani between 1907 and 1914 (1325–1332 AH). This book presents a theoretical framework for developing a modern society, based on the events of the Constitutional Revolution and subsequent transformations.

Western technology was also discussed in relation to civilization, not merely in theoretical terms but in practical, field-based analyses. For example, treatises were written on the benefits of railroads, a major technological advancement at the time.

Discussions on industrialization in Iran date back to the reign of Mohammad Shah Qajar (1834–1848) and continued throughout Naser al-Din Shah’s era (1848–1896). However, writings on Western progress were often promotional rather than analytical. A Persian book explicitly linking civilization with technology was Ṭulūʿ-i Tamaddun wa Ikhtirāʿāt-i ʿAẓīmah (The Rise of Civilization and Great Inventions). This book was based on multiple English sources, translated into Persian by Mirza Muhammad Munshi. It was published in 1910 (1328 AH) in India, spanning 120 pages.

These books were widely read in Iran, contributing to Persian intellectual discourse on civilization and modernization.

Works on Islamic Civilization or Civilization and Islam (1921–1941 CE / 1300–1320 SH)

In late Qajar and early Pahlavi Iran, many European or European-influenced Arabic works were translated into Persian. As mentioned earlier, Gustave Le Bon’s The Civilization of Islam and the Arabs was translated during Reza Shah’s era, with the support of Mirza Ali Asghar Khan Hekmat and other prominent figures. This translation had a significant impact on the growing discourse on civilization in Iran. However, during Reza Shah’s rule, works on civilization with an Iranian focus also began to appear. The Anjuman-e Āthār-e Mellī (National Heritage Association) was actively involved in restoring Iran’s historical and civilizational sites.

For some writers of this period, Reza Shah was seen as a leader modernizing Iranian civilization. Among Muslims, including Iranians, the issue of civilization was closely tied to a sense of decline and weakness.

When the academic study of civilization emerged, Muslims began comparing themselves with Europeans, leading to feelings of backwardness. This prompted them to study their own civilization’s past, seeking to highlight the past greatness of Islamic civilization, analyze their current decline, and find solutions to regain their former status, while engaging with modern civilization.

In Iran, discussions on civilization began sporadically, but they became serious and widespread during the Constitutional Era (1905–1911 CE). The most pressing question was: Why has Iran fallen behind? Naturally, this led to historical discussions about Iran’s past grandeur, debates on how to attain modern civilization, and the criteria necessary for progress. However, some intellectuals took a different perspective, arguing that Iran remained great and still held its rightful place.

To prove this claim, they pointed to Iran’s past artistic and cultural achievements. Yet, when it came to science, what could be said? One example is Najm al-Dawlah, a natural scientist of this era, who published a series of essays titled ʿIlm-i Irānī (Iranian Science) in 1905 (1323 AH). His work aimed to demonstrate that Iran still possessed scientific and intellectual depth.

Iranians eventually began writing their own works on civilization. Their style and methodology were not as advanced as Western scholars, less developed than Arab scholars and more general and reflective of their sentiments on civilization

One such work was Madīnat al-Islām, Rūḥ al-Tamaddun (The City of Islam, The Spirit of Civilization) by Shaykh Ahmad Shahrudi, published in 1927 (1346 AH) in Najaf in Persian (362 pages).

In his introduction, Shahrudi fiercely criticizes Westernized intellectuals, arguing that Islam possesses its own unique civilization. This book is less of a historical account and more of a theoretical framework for constructing an Islamic civilization.

As previously mentioned, in the late Qajar and early Pahlavi I periods, debates on civilization intensified, particularly regarding its compatibility with Islam. Several works were produced on this subject, including Dīn wa Tamaddun, Islām wa Falsafah (Religion and Civilization, Islam and Philosophy) by Sayyid Mufīd Maljaʾī, published in 1926 (1344 AH) in Rasht (191 pages); and  Tamaddun al-Islām (The Civilization of Islam) by Shaykh Qasim Muhajir, written in 1933 (1351 AH). This two-volume work extensively discusses the relationship between Islam and civilization and The author, familiar with Russian, includes many references from Russian sources.

Another lesser-known work was Kitāb al-Hādī, a Persian book published in 1935 (1313 SH). Written by Mirza Hadi ibn Abi Turab Nuri Mazandarani, this book criticizes European civilization, Christianity, and other aspects of Western influence. It was published by Majlis Press in 150 pages.

During Reza Shah’s reign, the dominant discourse focused on material progress and development. Numerous theoretical debates emerged on topics such as, obstacles to growth and progress, the role of veiling (ḥijāb), and the practice of mourning rituals (ʿazādārī). The issue of women’s rights was frequently discussed, with claims that, veiling hindered women’s progress and women needed to participate in society to contribute to civilization. This sparked significant social and political tensions. Most clerics distanced themselves from the government due to the forced unveiling of women, the imposition of Western-style clothing and the moral and religious concerns, such as the expansion of alcohol sales.

Even some progressive religious scholars who initially supported modernization hesitated when it came to veiling. One example is Sayyid Husayn ʿArab Bāghī (d. 1950 / 1329 SH), a cleric from Urmia. He wrote several treatises, including Najāt-i Īrān (The Salvation of Iran), advocating for modernization. He even cooperated with the government in establishing military barracks in Urmia. However, he opposed the forced unveiling of women, rejecting the claim that hijab was an obstacle to progress.

One of his treatises, Risālah-yi Ṭarīq al-Yaqīn dar Luzūm-i Dīn bar Mutaḥaḍdīn (The Path of Certainty: The Necessity of Religion for Civilized People), argues that a civilized life is only possible within the framework of religion and without religion, a good life cannot be achieved. His writings should be revisited for a deeper understanding of the intersection between religion and civilization in this period. For more on ʿArab Bāghī, see Guzar-i Āftāb (Husayn Khurmand, Tehran, 2016 / 1395 SH).

In Najāt-i Īrān, ʿArab Bāghī discusses the necessity of building railways in Iran and the economic consequences of not developing industrial factories.

During early Pahlavi rule, another book titled Tamaddun-i Islām (The Civilization of Islam) was published by Sayyid ʿAlī Riḍā ibn Sayyid ʿAlī Aṣghar Shahrastānī. Shahrastānī was the editor of the newspaper Tarwīj al-Islām, published in Mashhad. His book was printed in 1927 (1346 AH), but I have not yet found a copy of it and Al-Dharīʿah (3/245, 4/432) references this book.

Another book, Al-Tamaddun wa al-Tadīn (Civilization and Religion), is also mentioned in Al-Dharīʿah (4/432), but no details are provided about its contents.

Translation of Arabic Works on Islamic Civilization into Persian

Egyptian thought and scholarship on Islamic civilization—particularly in the fields of theory, Islamic revivalism, and societal reconstruction—had a significant influence on Iran.

Key Egyptian works were translated into Persian, shaping Iranian intellectual discourse on civilization.

One notable Egyptian thinker was Farid Wajdi, whose works, including his encyclopedia and Al-Madīnah wa al-Islām (The City and Islam), were highly influential. Al-Madīnah wa al-Islām was translated into Persian by Shaykh Aqa Buzurg Tehrani. A manuscript copy of this translation is preserved at the Majlis Library (Manuscript No. 15818). The preface notes that two-thirds of the book was printed in Najaf.

Another important work by Wajdi was Al-Islām fī ʿAṣr al-ʿIlm (Islam in the Age of Science), which argued that Islam is compatible with modern science and Islam is inherently a scientific religion. This book was translated into Persian in 1939 (1318 SH) under the title Islām dar ʿAṣr-i Dānish (Islam in the Age of Knowledge). From 1900 onward, Muslim writers increasingly emphasized that Islam is a scientific religion.

For example, Sayyid Jamal al-Din al-Afghani debated this issue with Ernest Renan. His student, Shaykh Muhammad ʿAbduh, wrote a book titled Al-Islām Dīn al-ʿIlm wa al-Madaniyyah (Islam: The Religion of Science and Civilization). This book argued that Islam was both scientific and compatible with civilization and it also responded to Western criticisms of Islam’s relationship with science.

During this period, many books explored Islam’s connection to science, and this discussion became a core theme in Islamic civilization studies.

Examples include Islām wa Ṭibb-i Jadīd yā Muʿjizāt-i ʿIlmī-yi Qurʾān (Islam and Modern Medicine or the Scientific Miracles of the Qurʾān) written by ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Ismāʿīl Pasha, translated into Persian by Ghulamreza Saʿidi, and published in 1943 (1322 SH); Islām wa Hayʾat (Islam and Astronomy), translated in 1938 (1356 AH / 1316 SH) by Ferdowsi Farahani, and published in Najaf by Haj Siraj Ansari.

Another notable work by Farid Wajdi was Taqbīq al-Diyānah al-Islāmiyyah ʿalā Nawāmīs al-Madaniyyah (The Application of Islamic Religion to the Laws of Civilization), published in 1898 (1316 AH) in Egypt. As the title suggests, Egyptian scholars had long been engaged in theorizing about the relationship between Islam and modern civilization.

Syed Ameer Ali (Indian-English Scholar) and Islamic Civilization

Muslim intellectuals in British India were also engaged in civilization debates. Because they were familiar with English culture and scholarship, they were often more advanced in language and methodology than their counterparts in the Arab world. One key figure was Syed Ameer Ali, who wrote Mukhtaṣar Tārīkh al-ʿArab wa al-Tamaddun al-Islāmī (A Short History of the Arabs and Islamic Civilization). His book Tārīkh al-ʿArab wa al-Islām (The History of the Arabs and Islam) was translated into Persian by Fakhr Daʿi Gilani (the same translator of Gustave Le Bon’s The Civilization of Islam and the Arabs), published in Tehran in 1987 (1366 SH), likely as a second edition. His work Mukhtaṣar Tārīkh al-ʿArab was translated into Arabic by Riyadh Raʾfat in 1938.

Ameer Ali also wrote, Rūḥ al-Islām (The Spirit of Islam), which was translated into Persian and Al-Qānūn al-Islāmī (Islamic Law). In the preface to The Spirit of Islam, he states that the book was written to attract Western attention to Islamic civilization.

Over the past two centuries, Muslim scholars have gradually developed “civilization studies” (tamaddun-negārī). This field emerged from two main sources:

1. The translation of European works on the Islamic East into Arabic, Urdu, and Persian.
2. Muslim intellectuals responding to their own social and political crises.

Muslims faced two challenges: defending Islam and their identity, and addressing their decline and theorizing solutions for progress. Thus, civilization studies evolved in two main directions:

1. Historical Studies → Examining the past achievements of Islamic civilization.
2. Theoretical Studies → Developing new frameworks for understanding Islamic civilization.

At times, these studies focused on defending Islam, particularly its relationship with science and modernity. Many other books and articles were published in Islamic periodicals, further enriching the field. The leading regions for Islamic civilization studies were Egypt, British India (the Subcontinent) and Iran (with its own unique concerns and intellectual approaches).

Today, Islamic civilization studies have grown into a powerful discourse across the Muslim world, particularly in post-revolutionary Iran. However, much of this discourse remains highly ideological and promotional rather than academic and analytical.

More recently, a new intellectual movement known as Naqd al-Turāth (Critique of Islamic Heritage) has emerged. This movement includes Muslim scholars living in the West and contemporary Egyptian and Iranian intellectuals.

These debates on civilization are an extension of the larger evolution of Islamic civilization studies. Naturally, civilization (tamaddun) also encompasses culture (thaqāfah). Another related field is the history of science, which has developed as a separate discipline and requires further discussion elsewhere.

1. Original article